Genocidal Bifurcations: The Innocent Sources of Criminal Choices
Abstrakt
The present paper aims to investigate the causes of genocidal mobilization associated with the involvement of ordinary people. I discuss the “innocent causes” of criminal choices made by perpetrators who are not leaders, sadists or radicals. To this end, I compared three total genocides, of Armenians, Jews, Romani, Tutsi and Twa, and selected partial genocides. My analysis proves that entire nations or ethnic groups may be exterminated because many people make criminal choices which are motivated by values and norms that in other circumstances would be considered acceptable or even commendable. These choices are made partly due to the structural pressure of circumstances (an ongoing war, a change in the rules of the game [les champs], a new distribution of capital) and are partly derived from dispositions shaped in the course of primary and secondary socialization. Yet, they always require the reflexive mediation of “objective” social forces.
Bibliografia
Akhavan P., “The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: The Politics and Pragmatics of Punishment,” The American Journal of International Law, 1996, Vol. 90, No. 3, pp. 501–510.
Anderson B., Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Revised Edition, New York – London: Verso Books, 2006.
Archer M., “Jak porządek społeczny wpływa na ludzkie sprawstwo? Refleksyjność jako mechanizm pośredniczący między strukturą a sprawstwem,” T. Skoczylas (trans.), in: A. Mrozowiecki, O. Nowaczyk, I. Szlachcicowa (eds.), Sprawstwo. Teorie, metody, badania empiryczne w naukach społecznych, Zakład Wydawniczy „Nomos”, Kraków 2013, pp. 19–35.
Arendt H., Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, New York: Penguin Books, 1984.
Bauer Y., Rethinking the Holocaust, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002, p. 71.
Bauman Z. and Lyon D., Liquid Surveillance: A Conversation, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013.
Bauman Z., Modernity and the Holocaust, Ithaca and New York: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Bonacich E., “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” American Sociological Review, 1973, No. 38, pp. 583–594.
Bourdieu P., Wacquant L., An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Brown R., Group Processes: Dynamics within and between Groups, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, Malden 2000.
Browning Ch.R., Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, New York: Harper Perennial, 1998.
Browning Ch.R., with contributions by J. Matthäus, The Origins of the Final Solution, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2004.
Butler J., Frames of War: When is Life Grievable?, London: Verso Books, 2016.
Campbell B., “Contradictory Behavior during Genocides,” Sociological Forum, 2010, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 296–314.
Collins R., Conflict Sociology: Toward an Explanatory Science, London, New York and San Francisco: Academic Press, 1975, pp. 63 and 64.
Collins R., Interaction Ritual Chains, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 127.
Collins R., Violence. A Micro-Sociological Theory, Oxford and Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008.
Domosławski A., Śmierć w Amazonii. Nowe eldorado i jego ofiary, Warszawa: Wielka Litera, 2013.
Dróżdż D., Zbrodnia ludobójstwa w międzynarodowym prawie karnym, Warszawa: Oficyna Wolters Kluwer Polska, 2010, pp. 65-67.
Dutton K., The Wisdom of Psychopaths: What Saints, Spies, and Serial Killers Can Teach Us About Success, Farrar, New York: Scientific American/Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 2012.
Engelking B., Grabowski J. (eds.), Zarys krajobrazu. Wieś polska wobec zagłady Żydów 1942–1945, Warszawa: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, 2011.
Engelking B., Grabowski J., „Żydów łamiących prawo należy karać śmiercią”. „Przestępczość” Żydów w Warszawie 1939–1942, Warszawa: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, 2010, pp. 148–150.
Fein H., Genocide. A Sociological Perspective, London and Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1993, p. 36.
Friedländer S., The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945, Harper Collins, 2009, p. 497.
Glick P., “Sacrificial Lambs Dressed in Wolves’ Clothing: Envious Prejudice, Ideology, and the Scapegoating of Jews,” in: L.S. Newman, R. Erber (eds.), Understanding Genocide: The Social Psychology of the Holocaust, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 133.
Grabowski J., „Ja tego Żyda znam!”. Szantażowanie Żydów w Warszawie, 1939–1943, Wydawnictwo IFiS PAN, Warszawa 2004.
Grandin G., “History, Motive, Law, Intent: Combining Historical and Legal Methods in Understanding Guatemala’s 1981–1983 Genocide,” in: R. Gellately, B. Kiernan (eds.), The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2003, pp. 339–352.
Gross J.T., Grudzińska-Gross I., Golden Harvest: Events at the Periphery of the Holocaust, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Hatzfeld J., Sezon maczet, J. Giszczak (trans.), Wołowiec: Wydawnictwo Czarne, 2012.
Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders. The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945, New York: Harper Perennial 1993, p. 25.
Hilberg, Zagłada Żydów europejskich, Vol. III, J. Giebułtowski (trans.), Warszawa: Piotr Stefaniuk, 2014, p. 1229.
Hochschild A., King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.
Ingrao C., The SS Dirlewanger Brigade: The History of the Black Hunters, New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011.
Kaufman S.J., Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 34–36.
Kiernan B., Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur, London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007, pp. 273–280.
Kosicki P.H., “The Rwandan Genocide: Theory and Practice,” International Journal of Sociology, 2007, 37(1), pp. 10–29.
Latour B., The Pasteurization of France, A. Sheridan, J. Law (transl.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988.
Libionka D., Zagłada Żydów w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie. Zarys problematyki, Lublin: Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku, 2017, pp. 187–189.
Lindqvist S., Terra Nullius: A Journey through No One’s Land, New York: New Press, 2007.
Mallmann K.M., “Człowieku, dziś świętuję tysięczny strzał w potylicę. Policja Bezpieczeństwa a Shoah w Galicji Zachodniej,” in: D. Libionka (ed.), Akcja Reinhardt. Zagłada Żydów w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie, Warszawa: Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, 2004, p. 100.
Mann M., The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Mann M., The Sources of Social Power, vol. I, A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760, ed. 15, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 73–102.
Marks S., Why Did They Follow Hitler? The Psychology of National Socialism, Ostfildern: Patmos, 2011.
Melson R.F., Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust, Chicago – London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 27–29.
Merton R., Social Theory and Social Structure, New York: The Free Press, 1968, p. 483.
Midlarsky M.I., The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 4.
Nijakowski L.M., Rozkosz zemsty. Socjologia historyczna mobilizacji ludobójczej [The Delight of Revenge: A Historical Sociology of Mobilization for Genocide], Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, 2013, pp. 76–77.
Olusoga D., Erichsen C., The Kaiser’s Holocaust: Germany’s Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism, London: Faber & Faber, 2010.
Reginia-Zacharski J., Rwanda. Wojna i ludobójstwo, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 2012, p. 96.
Reimann G., Schütze F., “‘Trajectory’ As a Basic Theoretical Concept for Analyzing Suffering and Disorderly Social Processes,” in: D.R. Maines (ed.), Social Organization and Social Process: Essays in Honor of Anselm Strauss, New York: Aldine de Grumer, 1991, pp. 333–357.
Rhodes R., Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust, New York: Vintage Books, 2003.
Shaw M., “The General Hybridity of War and Genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research, 2007, Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp. 461–473.
Smith D.L., The Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2007.
Sofsky W., The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp, W. Templer (trans.), Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey 1997, pp. 16-27.
Ternon Y., The Armenians: History of a Genocide, R.C. Cholakian (trans.), Delmar, New York: Caravan Books, 1981.
Tilly C., European Revolutions, 1492–1992, Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995.
Uvin P., “Rwanda’s Lack of Resources and Extreme Poverty Provided the Breeding Grounds for Genocide,” in: Ch. Fisanick (ed.), The Rwanda Genocide, San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2004, pp. 47–56;
Wallerstein I., World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction, Durham – London: Duke University Press, 2005, pp. 76–77.
Welzer H., Sprawcy. Dlaczego zwykli ludzie dokonują masowych mordów, with contributions by M. Christ, M. Kurkowska (transl.), Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, 2010, pp. 15 and 42.
Wodak R., de Cillia R., Reisigl M., Liebhart K., The Discursive Construction of National Identity, A. Hirsch and R. Mitten (transl.), Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003.
Zimbardo P., The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil, London: Rider, 2007.
University of Warsaw Polska
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0177-6305
Assistant Professor, University of Warsaw, Institute of Sociology.
Ten utwór jest dostępny na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa-Użycie niekomercyjne-Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
