Separatism and Jihadism: Interaction in the Context of Terrorist Activity
Abstrakt
According to the well-known concept of consequential waves of terrorism, proposed by American researcher David C. Rapoport, since 1979, the world has encountered a wave of religious terrorism. Religiously motivated terrorists are the most dangerous and cruel terrorists who continue to lead the world. All four terrorist groups responsible for 55 per cent of total deaths in 2019 are jihadists (Global Terrorism Index 2020). The Taliban, Boko Haram, ISIL, and Al-Shabaab all fight for the establishment of their own quasi-state entities within the borders of existent sovereign states. This political objective associates the jihadists with another ideological movement – separatist-terrorists – in Rapoport’s model. Despite apparent distinctions in ideological foundations and political agendas, these two movements are similar in their struggle for self-determination within the borders of sovereign states. In this article, we use data from the Global Terrorism Database to compare how these two ideological movements with similar political objectives influence each other in the area of terrorist activity. Having analysed and reviewed information about 3,617 terrorist organisations that committed at least one terrorist attack from 1970 to 2018, we check how jihadist and separatist-terrorist activities were interrelated and how this interrelation manifested itself in different countries.
Bibliografia
Al-Tamimi A.J., Jihadism 101: „The Neglected Duty”, Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi’s Blog, http://www.aymennjawad.org/23451/jihadism-101-the-neglected-duty [accessed 17.07.2022].
Bodetti A., How the Thai conflict is boosting Islamic State in Malaysia, The Diplomat [website], 17.10.2018, https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/how-the-thai-conflict-is-boosting-islamic-state-in-malaysia/ [accessed 17.07.2022].
Fight Against Separatism – the Republic in Action: Speech by Emmanuel Macron, President of the Republic, on the Fight Against Separatism (Les Mureaux, 2 Oct. 2020), Ministère de l’Europe et des Affaires étrangères, https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france-63815/article/fight-against-separatism-the-republic-in-action-speech-by-emmanuel-macron [accessed 17.07.2022].
Honig O., I. Yahel, A Fifth Wave of Terrorism? The Emergence of Terrorist Semi-States, „Terrorism and Political Violence” 2019, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 1210–1228, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2017.1330201 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Jihad, Oxford Islamic studies online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1199 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Ibn Nuhass, The Book Of Jihad: Mashari Al-Ashwaq Ila Masari Al-Ushaaq Wa Mutheer Al-Gharaam Ila Daar Assalaam, https://archive.org/details/TheBookOfJihadByIbnNuhass [accessed 17.07.2022].
Kadir bin Che Man W., Muslim Separatism: the Moros in Southern Philippines and the Malays in Southern Thailand, Thesis (PhD), The Australian National University 1987, https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/10146/6/Kadir%20bin%20Che%20Man%20W%20Thesis%201987.pdf [accessed 17.07.2022].
Kanakh A., Dzhikhadiiskyi salafizm yak nove yavyshche u mizhnarodnii politytsi [Jihadi Salafism is a new phenomenon in international politics], „Ukrainian Religious Studies” 2013, no. 68, pp. 109–113, https://doi.org/10.32420/2013.68.344 [accessed 17.07.2022] [in Ukr.].
Kaplan J., A Strained Criticism of Wave Theory, „Terrorism and Political Violence” 2016, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 228–235, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112279 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Marshall M.G., Major Episodes of Political Violence (MEPV) and Conflict Regions, 1946–2018, Center for Systemic Peace 2019, http://www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/MEPVcodebook2018.pdf [access 17.07.2022].
Myanmar Signs Historic Cease-fire Deal with Eight Ethnic Armies, RadioFree Asia, https://www.refworld.org/docid/5674037f11.html [accessed 17.07.2022].
Parker T., N. Sitter, The Four Horsemen of Terrorism: It’s Not Waves, It’s Strains, „Terrorism and Political Violence” 2016, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 197–216, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Pavković A., Secession: A Much Contested Concept, in: Territorial Separatism in Global Politics: Causes, Outcomes and Resolution, ed. D. Kingsbury, C. Laoutides, Routledge, London 2015, pp. 13–28, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270275527_Secession_A_much_contested_concept [accessed 17.07.2022].
Pinos J.C., S.M. Radil, The Territorial Contours of Terrorism: A Conceptual Model of Territory for Non-state Violence, „Terrorism and Political Violence” 2020, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 1027–1046, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1442328 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Qutb S., Jihad in the Cause of Allah, International Islamic Publishers Ltd., Karachi 1988.
Raineri L., F. Strazzari, Jihadism in Mali and the Sahel: Evolving Dynamics and Patterns, European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS) 2017, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06851 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Rapoport D.C., The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11, „Anthropoetics” 2002, vol. 8, no. 1, http://anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0801/terror/ [accessed 17.07.2022].
Rasler K ., W.R. Thompson, Looking for Waves of Terrorism, „Terrorism and Political Violence” 2009, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 28–41, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802544425 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Schofield V., Kashmiri Separatism and Pakistan in the Current Global Environment, „Contemporary South Asia” 2008, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 83–92.
Shichor Y., Blow Up: Internal and External Challenges of Uyghur Separatism and Islamic Radicalism to Chinese Rule in Xinjiang, „Asian Affairs: An American Review” 2005, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 119–135, https://www.jstor.org/stable/30172871 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Souleimanov E.A., Jihad or Security? Understanding the Jihadization of Chechen Insurgency through Recruitment into Jihadist Units, „Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies” 2014, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 86–105, https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2014.986375 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Stark J., Muslims in the Philippines, „Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs” 2003, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 195–209, https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000305937 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Tan A., Armed Muslim Separatist Rebellion in Southeast Asia: Persistence, Prospects, and Implications, „Studies in Confl ict & Terrorism” 2000, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 267–288, https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100050174986 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Tanchum M., Al-Qa’ida’s West African Advance: Nigeria’s Boko Haram, Mali’s Touareg, and the Spread of Salafi Jihadism, „Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs” 2012, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 75–90, https://doi.org/10.1080/23739770.2012.11446504 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Weiss C., Islamic State-loyal Groups Claim Attacks on Filipino Military, Threat Matrix: FDD’s Long War Journal [website], 28.05.2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/05/islamic-state-loyal-groups-claim-attacks-on-filipino-military.php [accessed 17.07.2022].
Whitehouse B., F. Strazzari, Introduction: Rethinking Challenges to State Sovereignty in Mali and Northwest Africa, „African Security” 2015, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 213–226, https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2015.1100498 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Wilhelmsen J., Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Islamisation of the Chechen Separatist Movement, „Europe-Asia Studies” 2005, vol. 57, no. 1, 35–59, https://doi.org/10.1080/0966813052000314101 [accessed 17.07.2022].
Zenn J., Islamic State Receives Loyalty Pledge from Myanmar’s Rohingya Militants, „Terrorism Monitor” 2020, vol. 18, no. 21, https://jamestown.org/program/briefs-339/ [accessed 17.07.2022].
The International Research Center for Security Problems in Kyiv Ukraina
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9292-4830
Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University in Poltava Ukraina
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3596-3467
University of Prince Edward Island in Charlottetown Kanada
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7964-8747
Ten utwór jest dostępny na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa-Użycie niekomercyjne-Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
